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Abstract: Case Study: Apple CardIn 2019, Apple ventured into the world of personal lending with their own credit card, called the Apple Card, with a credit model that was designed by Goldman Sachs.The card promised consumers a more direct interface with all the Apple services and a sleek card design with only the person's name.However, the Apple Card immediately attracted criticisms on social media that it was discriminating against women.The most notable was a post by the Danish programmer and entrepreneur David Heinemeier Hanson, who noted that he and his wife were approved for dif fer ent credit limits, despite sharing all the same assets:The @AppleCard is such a fucking sexist program.My wife and I filed joint tax returns, live in a community-property state, and have been married for a long time.Yet Apple's black box algorithm thinks I deserve 20x the credit limit she does.No appeals work.The volume of these complaints was disturbing, but the scandal turned into a full-blown public disaster when cofounder of Apple Steve Wozniak commented on Hanson's post: "The same thing happened to us.We both have the same high limits on our cards, including our AmEx Centurion card.But 10x on the Apple Card."Both Apple and Goldman Sachs denied these allegations, even claiming (as most companies do in these cases) that the model didn't explic itly use gender as one of its features, so it couldn't possibly be sexist!But the scandal was too loud to ignore.As a result of these criticisms, the New York Department of Financial Services (DFS) de cided to launch an investigation into Apple Card.This prompted global headlines such as the following:1 The Prob lem of Measuring Fairness