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The May 2024 geomagnetic superstorm and its impact on the global electric circuit
J. Tacza (Institute of Geophysics Polish Academy of Sciences), Gang Li (Macau University of Science and Technology, China National Space Administration), Shuai Fu (Macau University of Science and Technology, China National Space Administration), Tao Chen (Chinese Academy of Sciences, National Space Science Center), Enming Xu (Macau University of Science and Technology, China National Space Administration), Marek Kubicki (Institute of Geophysics Polish Academy of Sciences), Hugo Gonçalves Silva (University of Évora, Center for Sci-Tech Research in EArth sysTem and Energy), Jean‐Pierre Raulin (Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie), Ruben Romero (Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie), Germán R. Fernández (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, National University of San Juan), A. Marún (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Ciencias Astronómicas, de la Tierra y del Espacio), Jorge Samanes (Comisión Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Aeroespacial)
Abstract: In May 2024, a sequence of intense solar eruptions–including multiple M- and X-class flares and several coronal mass ejections–from solar active regions 3663 and 3664 triggered one of the most extreme geomagnetic storms of Solar Cycle 25. The storm produced a minimum disturbance storm-time index of –406 nT and a peak interplanetary magnetic field magnitude of ∼70 nT at the first Lagrangian point. This event also generated a large Forbush Decrease in galactic cosmic rays and a Ground-Level Enhancement of solar energetic particles, offering a unique opportunity to assess solar–terrestrial coupling through the Global Electric Circuit (GEC). We analyzed fair-weather surface Potential Gradient (PG) data from twelve instruments across seven stations worldwide, spanning a broad geomagnetic-latitude range, and air-Earth current density data from one station. Data were screened using strict meteorological criteria, and anomalies were computed in physical units relative to station-specific non-geostorm diurnal backgrounds (obtained by averaging over all non-geostorm days in May 2024). To interpret geomagnetic forcing, we applied the Weimer empirical model to estimate ionospheric cross-polar-cap potential. Statistical inference used moving-block bootstrap tests (6 h blocks) with Holm correction for multiplicity. Results show an early PG decrease near interplanetary shock arrival, followed by day-dependent behavior during the Forbush-decrease phase, including multi-station positive phases but with heterogeneous station-level responses. With robust effects limited to a subset of station/day comparisons after multiplicity correction. Effect magnitudes and directional coherence are consistent with combined electrodynamic forcing and conductivity modulation, with sensitivity varying by location. This study provides a global assessment of GEC perturbations during the May 2024 superstorm and indicates that solar-wind, geomagnetic, and cosmic-ray variability likely jointly modulate near-surface atmospheric electricity.